The International Court of Justice was founded in 1945 in The Hague (Den Haag), Holland, with the dream of being able to unite the entire planet behind a shared set of rules, to give citizens a way out to defend their interests in countries oppressed by dictatorship, to settle disputes between nations without having to resort to arms. In this court should sit the most just and honest magistrates on earth. It should be so. Until January 2023, when one of the most powerful judges of the last quarter century, Mohammed Bedjaoui, was convicted of corruption in a sentence that casts a disturbing shadow over his entire work.
His Excellency Mohammed Bedjaoui – Algerian lawyer, high state official, diplomat and politician – is now 94 years old. Despite being unknown in the Western media, he was one of the most influential men of the 20th century. For almost 20 years, he was a Judge at the International Court of Justice in The Hague, and through his hands all the most sensitive dossiers of human rights violations and economic disputes between nations passed – but before that, he was one of Algeria’s most powerful politicians. In the course of his career, he held many important positions: first Secretary General of the Government, then Minister of Justice and Keeper of the Seals[1] .
He was born into a modest family on 21 September 1929 in Sidi Bel-Abbes, in the hinterland of Oran, about 200 km east of Algiers. He has no memories of his father, as he died in 1933, when he was only four years old. His maternal uncle took him in and brought him up in the suburbs of Tlemcen. He met his wife, Leïla Francis, and married her in 1962. His wife’s uncle, Ahmed Francis, is the former Prime Minister of Economy and Finance of Algeria[2] (he lost his post in 1961), and the whole family was part of the FLN and participated, with different responsibilities, in the negotiations that led to the Evian Accords and Algerian independence[3] . Bedjaoui obtained a diploma from the Institute of Political Studies in Grenoble in 1952 and a PhD from the University of Grenoble in 1956[4] . He is an emeritus member of the Institute of International Law and of the International Commission against the Death Penalty. He was excluded from the ENA (National School of Administration) entrance examination because he is a Communist Party sympathiser.
Political career
Algiers, 10 December 1960: pro-French demonstration in Ain Temouchent for the arrival of Charles de Gaulle[5]
Bedjaoui grew up during the years of colonial conflict and, like most Algerian intellectuals, aspired to independence and an equal relationship with France. After university, Mohammed Bedjaoui is an active sympathiser of the National Liberation Front (FLN)[6] , which fights for Algerian freedom between November 1954 and March 1962, after having been able to unite all other small organisations under one banner, under the leadership of Mohammed ‘Ahmed’ Ben Bella[7] . In September 1963, he became the first president of Algeria, before dying at the age of 95, mourned by all his people[8] .
The FLN’s military activities began on 1 November 1954, with a series of attacks across the country[9] , opening what was to be ‘the bloodiest war of liberation on the African continent’[10] . Starting in 1958, the FLN decided to open a second front in mainland France, through a series of attacks that would lead the French electorate to recall General De Gaulle, who had retired from political life more than twelve years before, to the presidency, and who would play a decisive role in fostering the decolonisation process[11] .
Bedjaoui became legal advisor to the FLN and the Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA) in 1956 and held this position until the year of liberation in 1962[12] . In Algiers, meanwhile, a group of coup d’état generals (Raoul Salan, Maurice Challe, Edmond Jouhaud and André Zeller) seized power in a coup d’état and threatened the very integrity of French institutions. De Gaulle began a policy of dialogue, while an opinion movement in favour of peace and Algerian independence grew in France. On the opposite front, the right-wing radicalises and the OAS is born, a terrorist organisation that carries out attacks in Algeria and France[13] .
After independence in the early 1960s, almost the entire population of European origin (including Muslim sympathisers) left the country; at least 70,000 Muslims were killed or kidnapped by the FLN during the war, and at least 200 Algerians died in the battle in Paris in 1961[14] . Famous examples of FLN massacres include the 1962 Oran massacre[15] and the 1955 Philippeville massacre [16][17] . In March 1961, the Évian Accords are signed[18] : Mohammed Bedjaoui participates in the delegation as a political advisor[19] . A year later, a formal ceasefire was signed and on 1 July 1962, a referendum enshrining independence was held[20] .
The Évian Accords guaranteed French settlers equal legal protection with other Algerians for a period of three years. These rights include respect for property, participation in public life and a broad list of civil and cultural rights. At the end of this period, however, all residents of Algeria would be obliged to become Algerian citizens or be classified as foreigners, which would result in their rights being forfeited. French voters approved the Évian Accords with a 91% majority in a referendum held in June 1962[21] .
Paris, 17 October 1961: French police massacre hundreds of Algerians claiming independence[22]
Bedjaoui was appointed by Ben Bella as Secretary General of the government, and his career proceeded with increasingly important assignments: Minister of Justice, Minister of Economy and Finance, Secretary General of the Government[23] , again Minister of Justice until 1970; Special Rapporteur of the International Law Commission on the Succession of States in Matters Other than Treaties (1968-1974; 1976-1981)[24] . After leaving government, he was appointed Ambassador to Paris in 1970, where he wrote a successful memoir[25] . In his book, he tells of the time he had to protest against France’s support for Morocco (an arms agreement with King Hassan II) at the expense of Algeria, an agreement that froze relations between the two countries for a long time.
Everything only returned to normal in April 1975, after Giscard d’Estaing’s visit to Algeria. Jacques Chirac, the premier of the French government at the time, repeatedly confirmed to Bedjaoui that d’Estaing’s agreement with Morocco was a mistake[26] . Sent to Paris as a lobbyist for the Algerian regime in France, Bedjaoui worked under the protection and supervision of Chirac and François Mitterrand, and especially of Jacques Attali[27] : ‘The Embassy received death threats when Lakhdar Hamina’s film ‘Chronicle of the Years of Fire’ was presented at the Cannes International Film Festival, and I intervened to overcome the harassment of the French authorities. I provided identity documents to the national leader Messali (*Ahmed Messali Hadj, Algerian nationalist revolutionary leader, who died in Paris in June 1974[28] ) despite his troubled relations with the regime of the time, and tried to bring him to Algeria in the last days of his life, but his health was very bad and this prevented him from visiting his homeland‘, Bedjaoui recounts in his book[29] .
In 1979, Mohammed Bedjaoui became ambassador of the Permanent Mission of Algeria to the United Nations in New York (until 1982), during the debates on the New International Economic Order[30] . During this period, in addition to serving as Vice-President of the UN Council for Namibia and Chairman of the Contact Group for Cyprus, Mohammed Bedjaoui was co-chairman of the UN Commission of Inquiry in Iran into the release of American diplomats held hostage in Tehran (1980)[31] . From March 1982 to September 2001, Mohammed Bedjaoui was a judge at the International Court of Justice[32] , where he became the President of the Chamber in 1984, and then became the President in 1994.
At UNESCO he became a Member of the International Bioethics Committee (1993-2000) and Member of the Governing Council (2001-2005). Bedjaoui is also the President of the Supervisory Commission of the presidential elections of 15 April 1999. In 2002, he was appointed President of the Constitutional Council of Algeria, Algeria’s highest judicial authority for monitoring constitutionality, then President of the International Court of Justice and President of the Algerian Supreme Court[33] . In May 2005, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs[34] , and remained in office until June 2007, when he asked to be relieved of his duties for personal reasons[35] , replaced by Mourad Medelci[36] , but retains the title of Minister of State[37] .
The first doubts about his work
The Hawar Islands, the subject of a long-standing dispute between Bahrain and Qatar[38]
The Hawar Islands are an archipelago of desert islands measuring 52 km2 , located off the west coast of Qatar in the Persian Gulf. The almost uninhabited islands are of unspoilt beauty. The archipelago consists of 6 larger islands and more than 30 smaller ones[39] , and are protected by UNESCO[40] . All but one of the islands are owned by Bahrain, although they are only 1.9 km away from the Qatari coast[41] ; the southern one, the small and uninhabited Jinan Island, is administered by Qatar.
This was not always the case: the islands are part of a territorial dispute between the ruling families of Bahrain and Qatar, which was only settled in 2001 by the International Court of Justice. In 1930, the British had assigned the territory to Bahrain, but with great protest. In 1986, the Bahraini government built a coastguard station on the Hawar Islands, prompting the Qatari government to send helicopter gunships and soldiers to the area and arrest the construction workers. Bahrain responds by deploying its own troops, and the two countries are on the brink of war until the Saudi government intervenes[42] .
In July 1991, Qatar initiated proceedings against Bahrain over sovereignty rights over the Hawar Islands (potentially rich in oil), the shoals of Dibal and Qit’at Jaradah, and the delimitation of maritime zones[43] . In the end, the International Court took Bahrain’s side, recognising the British colonialist choice as valid, and rejected Qatar’s argument[44] . Both states endorsed the ruling, closing the longest and most complex case in the history of the International Court of Justice[45] . Bedjaoui was one of the judges who made the decision[46] .
The territorial dispute between the two countries remained a potential source of armed conflict until the ruling of the International Court of Justice provided a permanent resolution of the conflict[47] , but today it is clear that, after seeing Bedjaoui’s conviction, one might think that assigning those islands to Bahrain, despite the fact that they are practically an extension of Qatar’s coastline, could be the effect of an intervention outside the rules. Now Hawar Islands is a project to attract foreign investment and is divided into four areas: nature reserves, contemporary urban centres, a waterfront resort and open spaces[48] . A Bahrain project.
In the course of investigating Bedjaoui’s suspicious activities, magistrates discovered that his family, over the years, had accumulated immense and unjustifiable wealth, if one considers the salaries earned by the Algerian judge-politician during his career. There were rewards, and not only for him: in October 2020, shortly after his arrival in France, the Algerian ambassador Antar Daoud put an end to the privileges enjoyed by certain personalities of the previous regime, the dictatorship of the Bouteflika clan, to which Bedjaoui certainly belongs.
For years, Mohammed Bedjaoui held the position of diplomatic advisor at the Algerian Embassy in Paris, for which he received a salary of EUR 9,000 per month, without ever carrying out any diplomatic activity. The former minister also had several flats in Paris and several passes and credit cards[49] . The new ambassador, on the hunt for assets given to Bouteflika’s friends, managed to regain possession of 44 of 46 properties – all in deplorable condition, abandoned or illegally sublet[50] .
Abdelaziz Bouteflika with US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in 1975[51]
The friendship between Bedjaoui and Bouteflika lasts a lifetime: Abdelaziz Bouteflika, born on 2 March 1937, joined the FLN in 1956 and, after the declaration of independence, became Foreign Minister at the age of only 25. Bouteflika held this position for 16 years, presiding over the UN General Assembly in 1974[52] . He was elected President in 1999, and re-elected in 2009 and 2013, amid allegations of fraud and fraud, and he used oil and gas revenues to quell internal discontent.
As the corruption in his clan became greater and greater, Algerians became more and more angry, and protests led to the end of the presidency in 2019[53] . After his resignation, the authorities launched investigations into corruption, which led to the imprisonment of several senior officials, friends and relatives of the former president[54] , including his brother Saïd. The name of Bedjaoui, for years the President’s spokesman and intermediary in Franco-Algerian relations, also appears in the investigation[55] .
The judge’s relatives
Amal Bedjaoui[56]
His daughter Amal (1963) studied in New York and then in Paris, and is a director, screenwriter, documentary filmmaker and producer. Through ML Productions SA Paris (shareholders: Amal – 35.84%, Mahmoud Francis – 28.32% and Isabelle Marie-Genevieve Pichaud – 35.84%)[57] finances her work as a director and screenwriter. In 2015, her passion for wines led her to found Hapiwine SAS Paris, in which she holds almost 82% of the shares[58] . Mohammed’s niece, Léïla Ayesha Francis (1966) has a consulting company in Essex, England – LF Consultancy Services Limited[59] and another in France – KLE Consultant SA Lyon, registered in 2020, of which she owns 100% of the shares[60] .
His nephew Farid, who holds French, Canadian and Algerian passports, graduated in business management from the prestigious business school in Montréal, where he emigrated with his parents and siblings[61] . In the 1990s, he started importing coffee with his brothers Réda and Ryad[62] (Ryad as of 2013 was the sole director and official shareholder of Bami Capital, a holding company that offers its services to investors wishing to settle in Canada and Europe[63] ), before ending up in a Dubai-based oil and gas investment company with a valuable list of North African clients. He has a luxurious residence in Dubai, where he takes refuge when there is danger of international arrest warrants[64] .
In Montréal is the base of the clan, where a large part of the fortune was invested (which the brothers had to put up for sale after the Sonatrach scandal[65] ). In addition, the Bedjaouis had (before the problems with the tax authorities) a flat of almost 300m2 in a villa on Avenue Foch in Paris, where the average price per square metre is $15,000. The family fortune also includes a yacht and a large villa on the Spanish island of Palma de Mallorca[66] . The father of seven children, he is married to a wealthy Lebanese heiress[67] , the daughter of former Defence Minister Mohsen Dalloul[68] , Rania, to whom he gives diamonds worth almost USD 1 million[69] . Despite this, Lebanon has always denied him a passport because of his involvement in the Sonatrach scandal[70] .
In the early 2000s, Farid Bedjaoui moved to Dubai where, together with his brother-in-law Ziad[71] , he set up Ryan Asset Management FZ, one of Dubai’s largest consultancy and investment companies – which later did business with Algerian Sonatrach. And also based in Dubai is his OGEC, the company specialising in oil and gas projects[72] . In 2002 Farid used the Panamanian trustee Mossack Fonseca to open a bank account for his company Rayan Asset Management FZ and set up several companies in Panama (e.g. Collingdale Consultants Inc. Panama, used to siphon off $15 million to associates and family of Chakib Khelil[73] ) and the Virgin Islands.
Farid uses his Canadian passport to open some bank accounts and his Algerian identity card – for some others, so he avoids controls. Bedjaoui involves half a dozen of his family members, friends and associates (including his wife, his brother-in-law Ziad Dalloul[74] , relatives of Algeria’s energy and water ministers, the CEO of the Algerian government-controlled oil and gas company and the head of Saipem for Algeria)[75] , and turns the wealthy family of state officials into a powerful economic clan. Chakib Khelil and Farid Bedjaoui met for the first time in Lebanon in 2002[76] , and a year later, in 2003, Khelil entrusted them with a portfolio of $2 billion. A sum he grew through his Dubai-based brokerage firm. Four years later, as his agenda grew, Bedjaoui offered his services to Saipem[77] .
The Sonatrach scandal
International arrest warrant for Farid Noureddine Bedjaoui[78]
In 2005, Algeria announced the opening of its huge gas reserves to foreign operators: investors could help build the first direct route from the gas reserves (in the heart of the Algerian desert and largely unexploited) to the European market. A very important move for Algeria, rewarded by great success: executives from China, France, Great Britain, Spain and Japan fly to Algiers to present their offers. But the most important negotiations take place in Milan, where Farid Bedjaoui, who has spent more than 100,000 dollars in five years at the Bulgari Hotel, lives and where he meets Algerian government officials and executives from Saipem, the Italian energy giant, controlled by the ENI group, which participates in the Algerian government tender. He is not alone. With him is Chakib Khelil, Algeria’s most powerful minister, in Milan to discuss contracts negotiated in Algeria and how the middlemen would be paid[79] .
In this way, Farid organises bribes amounting to some USD 275 million to help the Italian energy company receive contracts worth around EUR 8 billion[80] for the construction of oil and gas pipelines, from the North African desert to the Mediterranean coast, for the Algerian oil company Sonatrach. The money travelled on the Bedjaoui’s offshore network scattered between Dubai, Algeria, Singapore, Hong Kong, Switzerland, London and Lebanon (with Minkle Consultants SA Tortola, a ‘crossroads of illicit financial flows’[81] , at its epicentre) and managed by the trust firm Mossack Fonseca[82] . Even after the discovery of this illegal mechanism, Mossack Fonseca continued to work with one of its companies, Rayan Asset Management, at least until November 2015[83] .
Despite Saipem’s full cooperation with prosecutors, in February 2016 an Algerian court found the management of a Saipem subsidiary (Saipem Contracting Algérie Spa) guilty of fraud, money laundering and corruption[84] . Italian authorities file a criminal complaint against Bedjaoui. Prosecutors allege that he inflated contracts for the benefit of Algerian officials, adding a standard cut for himself, which earned him the nickname ‘Mr. 3 Percent‘[85] , according to documents seized by police at the Bulgari Hotel[86] . Farid was living in Dubai at the time and his lawyers claim that ‘as a 30-year-old management graduate, he could never have exerted enough influence among Algeria’s political, military and business elites to coordinate a $275 million bribery scheme‘[87] . Unless he had a very powerful family behind him.
His uncle Mohammed says he is “deeply hurt” by the revelations made about his nephew Farid. He believes he was involved in a ‘trap of political speculation’[88] . At the end of an international investigation that began in Italy in 2011 and lasted almost four years, Italian magistrates accused Farid Bedjaoui of acting as an intermediary to obtain these contracts in exchange for almost EUR 198 million. In the course of an investigation into the contracts, during a search at the home of Pietro Varone, a former director of Saipem, magistrates found documents relating to an agreement signed back in October 2007 between Saipem and a company owned by Farid Bedjaoui – Pearl Partners Ltd Hong Kong, a company with a branch in the Emirates[89] (which guarantees him 3% commission for his services)[90] . The money then disappears into bank accounts in the United Arab Emirates, Switzerland, France and Luxembourg[91] .
Almost all the offshore agreements used as a washing machine for these bribes were signed by the Swiss trust company Multi Group Finance, in Lausanne, on behalf of Farid Bedjaoui, and executed between 2007 and 2010 by the Panamanian law firm Mossack Fonseca. Farid Bedjaoui has a management mandate for Girnwood International Engineering Ltd. and Cardell Capital SA, which have accounts at the Edmond de Rothschild bank in Nassau, Bahamas. He founded Sorung Associates Inc. to manage the portfolios of accounts opened at Mirabaud Bank in Switzerland and Dubai. Justin Invest Developments SA managed a portfolio placed with Geneva-based BLOM Bank for him in 2008. He also inherited the shares of Pietro Varone, Saipem’s former director of operations, also named in the Sonatrach case, in the company Farnworth Consultants Inc. which was used for the purchase of a boat[92] .
Chakib Khelil, the former Algerian Energy Minister, sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for corruption[93]
The investigators found another trail that leads to Canada – it concerns the FCP First Calgary Petroleum Corporation which, between 2002 and 2007, signed contracts with Farid Bedjaoui’s companies, the proceeds of which ended up in the same Swiss accounts of the Algerian family – paid in exchange for the concession to exploit two Algerian oil and gas fields. From those accounts came the funds that financed the purchase of a real estate property in Maryland in the name of Chakib Khelil, the president of Sonatrach, and his friend Omar Habour.
Algeria accounts for about 80% of FCP’s business. In September 2008, First Calgary was acquired by the ENI group for EUR 610 million[94] . Algerian magistrates identified payments to the accounts of the companies of Najat Arafat, wife of Chakib Khelil – Carnelian Group Inc., founded in May 2005, and Parkford Consulting Inc. in October of the same year. Ms. Khelil’s credentials were transferred two years later, on 26 and 27 November 2007, to Omar Habour[95] .
Suspicions about Bedjaoui’s role in Algerian energy deals were made public in February 2013. Months later, Canadian police seized Bedjaoui’s assets in Montréal and French authorities raided Bedjaoui’s flat in the 16th arrondissement in Paris. French police then seized a 43-metre yacht and paintings by Andy Warhol, Joan Miró and Salvador Dali[96] . In addition to his bank accounts, the French got their hands on a villa ‘as big as a castle‘ in Ramatuelle in south-eastern France[97] . Works of art and real estate in France, the United States (including a very prestigious property in Manhattan[98] ), Canada, the Emirates and the Bahamas were bought with part of the money received in bribes[99] .
According to prosecutors, some of the money was used to bribe Saipem officials and Chakib Khelil, former Algerian Minister of Energy and Mines[100] in office as CEO of Sonatrach for ten years (1999-2010) under the presidency of Abdelaziz Bouteflika. Khelil left the government in 2010 after a series of corruption scandals – Farid Bedjaoui is said to have been the trustee[101] and the minister’s right-hand man[102] . Khelil went into hiding for three years in Maryland, then returned to Algeria, in 2016, after the authorities dropped corruption charges against him[103] , to flee again in April 2019, after Bouteflika’s resignation, following pressure from the protest movement[104] .
On 20 January 2023, Chakib Khelil was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment on charges of corruption[105] . Other convicted persons include the former Algerian Minister of Transport and Public Works, Amar Ghoul[106] , as well as Noureddine Boutarfa[107] and Abdelmoumen Ould Kaddour[108] , two former presidents of the Sonatrach oil company[109] . A 12-year prison sentence was also requested for Mohammed Bedjaoui and 10 years – for Farid Bedjaoui, with the confirmation of the international arrest warrant issued against them[110] . And it did not help that Mohammed Bedjaoui said in an interview that he had the bare minimum to survive: everyone knows by now that he receives two pensions, one in the Netherlands and one in Algeria, in addition to fees for international consultations[111] .
The motorway scandal
Former ministers under indictment (from left): Chakib Khelil, Mohammed Bedjaoui and Amar Ghoul[112]
The Bedjaoui clan is also stumbling on the motorway construction corruption scandals: among the multinationals that, according to investigations conducted in both Switzerland and Canada, have allegedly paid suspicious sums of money to companies managed by Farid Bedjaoui or to bank accounts of which he appears to be the beneficiary, in addition to Saipem, is SNC-Lavalin Group Inc. Montréal. The company has obtained contracts, procurement and Canadian construction in Algeria worth over USD 6 billion[113] . One of these contracts relates to the construction of 169 kilometres, 120 bridges, 40 viaducts and five kilometres of tunnels of the Autoroute Est-Ouest, which was the subject of another investigation for alleged corruption. And in that investigation, the name of Farid’s uncle, Mohammed Bedjaoui emerged[114] .
Bedjaoui admits that in April 2016, he gave his ‘initial support’[115] and introduced a French-Brazilian businessman (and arms dealer) Pierre Falcone to the Algerian authorities as the official representative of the Chinese Citic-Crcc group to obtain the contract[116] . “But I broke off all contact with him when I learned that he had not provided the expected assistance to our national defence. However, he had fully complied with all our procurement legislation,‘ says Bedjaoui[117] .
The Algerian investigation shows that bribes were paid for the construction of the motorway and that a key role was played by Pierre Falcone himself. “Some subcontracts for the motorway went to two Canadian companies, Snc-Lavalin and Dessau International. And we know that Farid Bedjaoui had something to do with the appointment of a person apparently in his confidence first as head of Dessau and later of Snc in Algeria. Moreover, Snc’s top management itself has admitted that it was practically hostage to Farid Bedjaoui and his Algerian partners,‘ says Djilali Hadjadj, spokesman for the Algerian Association for the Fight against Corruption[118] .
This is not the first investigation into SNC-Lavalin, in 2019 an investigation into potential criminal charges was launched against the company over an early 2000s contract to repair the Jacques Cartier Bridge in Montréal[119] . And in 2015 it was accused of bribing officials in Libya and Bangladesh in exchange for construction contracts[120] . Not only that, but Swiss sources indicate that there were many front companies registered by Farid Bedjaoui with the help of his collaborator Ouraied Samyr[121] , such as Integrama Consultants Ltd[122] . Between February 2007 and January 2009, this company cashed in EUR 15.5 million in ‘consultancies’ on behalf of a number of Chinese companies that wanted to compete for contracts for the motorway.
The suspicion is that this money, like the money that went to Pearl Partners Ltd Hong Kong, was only partly intended for Farid Bedjaoui and ended up in the hands of Algerian civil servants, including his uncle. According to his brother Reda’s explanations, ‘it is normal that his uncle Mohammed Bedjaoui attended ministerial meetings where a strategic project for the country was being discussed’[123] . Mohammed Bedjaoui denies everything and claims to have seen his nephew ‘only once in ten years’ and never received any money from him[124] . Nevertheless, Mohammed Bedjaoui was formally charged in September 2020 (after having ignored two summonses by the Algerian judiciary[125] ), along with several former ministers, including Ammar Ghoul, former Minister of Public Works, and Chakib Khelil, former Minister of Energy and Mines and Abdelaziz Bouteflika’s childhood friend[126] . In January 2023, Mohammed Bedjaoui was sentenced to five years in prison for ‘squandering public funds in concluding contracts with foreign companies’. The sentence was upheld on appeal in April 2023[127] .
A conviction that raises serious questions about all the decisions made by Bedjaoui during his years at the International Tribunal in The Hague, when his opinions influenced the history of peoples and decided multi-billion dollar fortunes. The fact that the news of his conviction passed almost unnoticed shows, unfortunately, that nobody believes in the fairness of the Hague Tribunal anymore.
[1] Mohammed Bedjaoui – International Commission against the Death Penalty (icomdp.org)
[2] Mohammed Bedjaoui (author of America as Hostage) – Babelio
[3] Ahmed Francis – en.knowledgr.com
[4] http://www.casbah-editions.com/fr/auteurs/mohammed-bedjaoui-0
[5] Algeria’s independence, 50 years ago – The Post
[6] Algerian War – ……… – Super summary: The Algerian War; Benjamin Stora. In October – Studocu
[7] Ahmed Ben Bella obituary | Algeria | The Guardian
[8] Ahmed Ben Bella obituary | Algeria | The Guardian
[9] The day the FLN declared war on France | lhistoire.fr
[10] National Liberation Front (Algeria) – en.knowledgr.com ; The Algerian War in “Passato e Presente” – RAI Press Office
[11] National Liberation Front (Algeria) – en.knowledgr.com ; The Algerian FLN, the national phantom on the run from France – Cesarini Zone
[12] Mohammed Bedjaoui – Eminent Scholars
[13] The Algerian War in “Passato e Presente” – RAI Press Office
[14] The massacre of Algerians in Paris – The Post
[15] La vérité sur les massacres d’Oran – L’Express (lexpress.fr) ; The full place of power: interwar Oran, the French empire’s bullring?: The Journal of North African Studies: Vol 18, No 5 (tandfonline.com)
[16] Les vérités cachées de la Guerre d’Algérie – Jean Sévillia – Google Books
[17] National Liberation Front (Algeria) – en.knowledgr.com
[18] Évian Accords – en.knowledgr.com
[19] Mohammed Bedjaoui – Eminent Scholars
[20] The Algerian War in “Passato e Presente” – RAI Press Office
[21] Évian Accords – en.knowledgr.com
[22] https://collettivoalma.wordpress.com/2012/10/18/17-ottobre-1961-la-mattanza-degli-algerini-a-parigi/
[23] Mohammed Bedjaoui – Eminent Scholars
[24] Mohammed Bedjaoui – Eminent Scholars
[25] Franco-Algerian Relations: Memoirs of an Algerian Ambassador to France – iReMMO
[26] En mission extraordinaire: carnets d’un ambassadeur d’Algérie en France (1970-1979), by Mohammed Bedjaoui, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2016, 418 pp., see more: En mission extraordinaire: carnets d’un ambassadeur d’Algérie en France (1970-1979): by Mohammed Bedjaoui, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2016, 418 pp, €40 (paperback), ISBN 978-2-343-09957-6: The Journal of North African Studies: Vol 24, No 5 (tandfonline.com) ; Mohamed Bedjaoui’s “Extraordinary Mission to Paris”, Exciting Historical Details – الشروق أونلاين (echoroukonline.com)
[27] https://ibiworld.eu/en/jonathan-gray-paris-has-its-new-richelieu/
[28] Algeria | Flag, Capital, Population, Map, & Language | Britannica
[29] Mohamed Bedjaoui’s ‘Extraordinary Mission to Paris’, Exciting Historical Details – الشروق أونلاين (echoroukonline.com)
[30] Note de lecture : Mohammed Bedjaoui, L’humanité en quête de paix et de développement. général de droit international public (2004) (persee.fr)
[31] Mohammed Bedjaoui – Eminent Scholars
[32] Official web-site : Cour internationale de Justice – International Court of Justice | INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE (icj-cij.org)
[33] Note de lecture : Mohammed Bedjaoui, L’humanité en quête de paix et de développement. général de droit international public (2004) (persee.fr)
[34] web.archive.org/web/20110718101135/http://www.french.xinhuanet.com/french/2005-05/02/content_110323.htm
[35] Mohammed Bedjaoui (author of America as Hostage) – Babelio
[36] Le président Bouteflika reconduit Abdelaziz Belkhadem (afrik.com)
[37] Mohammed Bedjaoui – International Commission against the Death Penalty (icomdp.org)
[38] https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/11/5/bahrain-re-opens-border-dispute-with-qatar
[39] Hawar Islands | Ramsar Sites Information Service
[40] Hawar Islands Reserve – UNESCO World Heritage Centre
[41] International Maritime Boundaries – Google Books
[42] Resolution of the militarised territorial dispute between Bahrain and Qatar – Better Evidence Project (gmu.edu) ; Border Disputes on the Arabian Peninsula | The Washington Institute
[43] Maritime delimitation and territorial issues between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain) (icj-cij.org)
[44] 087-20000613-ORA-02-00-BI.pdf (icj-cij.org)
[45] BBC News | MIDDLE EAST | Gulf islands row settled
[46] https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/87/087-20010316-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf ; https://www.icj-cij.org/case/87 ; https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/87/087-20010308-PRE-01-00-EN.pdf
[47] Resolution of the militarised territorial dispute between Bahrain and Qatar – Better Evidence Project (gmu.edu)
[48] Hawar Islands – Invest in Bahrain
[49] Algeria: abolition of privileges for Bouteflika’s ex-wife in Paris – Jeune Afrique ; New revelations about Mohamed Bedjaoui’s privileges in France – Algerie360
[50] Châteaux, immeubles, domaines… L’Algérie récupère ses biens en France, Jeuneafrique.com, mardi 9 mars 2021
[51] Abdelaziz Bouteflika, former Algerian president, dies aged 84 | Algeria | The Guardian
[52] Abdelaziz Bouteflika, former Algerian president, dies aged 84 | Algeria | The Guardian
[53] Abdelaziz Bouteflika, former Algerian president, dies aged 84 | Algeria | The Guardian
[54] Algeria’s ex-president is dead, but his regime lives on (economist.com)
[55] Bouteflika ajourne le traité d’amitié franco-algérien (lefigaro.fr)
[56] Amal BEDJAOUI (AMAL BEDJAOUI), 60 ans (PARIS, NEUILLY SUR SEINE) – Copains d’avant (linternaute.com)
[57] ML Productions SA Paris
[58] Amal Bedjaoui biography (comingsoon.co.uk) ; (15) Amal Bedjaoui | LinkedIn ; Hapiwine SAS Paris
[59] LF Consultancy Services Ltd Essex
[60] KLE Consultant SA Lyon
[61] The golden life of Farid Bedjaoui | The Press (lapresse.ca)
[62] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[63] The golden life of Farid Bedjaoui | The Press (lapresse.ca)
[64] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[65] Les Bedjaoui liquident leur patrimoine immobilier au Canada (ksari.com)
[66] The golden life of Farid Bedjaoui | The Press (lapresse.ca)
[67] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[68] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[69]” Panama papers : comment l’élite algérienne a détourné l’argent du pétrole (lemonde.fr)
[70] Algerian wanted by Interpol naturalised in Lebanon | Middle East Eye French edition
[71] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[72] The golden life of Farid Bedjaoui | The Press (lapresse.ca)
[73] Panama Papers Reveal Wide Use of Shell Companies by African Officials – The New York Times (nytimes.com)
[74]” Panama papers : comment l’élite algérienne a détourné l’argent du pétrole (lemonde.fr)
[75] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/
[76] Algerian wanted by Interpol naturalised in Lebanon | Middle East Eye French edition
[77] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[78] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/ ; Why did Interpol withdraw the red notice for Farid Bedjaoui? – Patriotic Algeria (algeriepatriotique.com)
[79] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[80] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[81]” Panama papers : comment l’élite algérienne a détourné l’argent du pétrole (lemonde.fr)
[82] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/ ; Panama Papers FAQ: All You Need to Know About The 2016 Investigation – ICIJ
[83] Panama Papers Reveal Wide Use of Shell Companies by African Officials – The New York Times (nytimes.com)
[84] https://www.saipem.com/it/media/comunicati-stampa/2022-12-12/saipem-decisione-della-corte-di-appello-di-algeri-sul-progetto
[85] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/226645/politique/alg-rie-farid-bedjaoui-le-monsieur-3-du-scandale-sonatrach/
[86] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/
[87] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/
[88] Mohamed Bedjaoui maintains his innocence – Algerie360
[89] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[90] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[91] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[92]” Panama papers : comment l’élite algérienne a détourné l’argent du pétrole (lemonde.fr)
[93] https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230120-algeria-judiciary-20-years-imprisonment-in-absentia-against-former-energy-minister-chakib-khelil/
[94] The Algerian ‘system’, from Orascom to Lavalin – Il Sole 24 ORE
[95] “Panama papers : comment l’élite algérienne a détourné l’argent du pétrole (lemonde.fr)
[96] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/
[97] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[98] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[99] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[100] https://www.jeuneafrique.com/232593/societe/affaire-sonatrach-saipem-bedjaoui-face-la-justice-italienne/
[101] Bribes in Algeria: Milan court acquits Scaroni and Eni, condemned Saipem – Il Sole 24 ORE
[102] https://www.africarivista.it/pandora-papers-in-arrivo-i-casi-algerini/192656/
[103] https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160725-natural-resource-africa-offshore/
[104] https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230120-algeria-judiciary-20-years-imprisonment-in-absentia-against-former-energy-minister-chakib-khelil/
[105] Algeria sentences ex-energy minister to 20 years in prison (citizen.digital)
[106] https://menafn.com/1105453475/Algeria-Sentences-Ex-Energy-Minister-To-20-Years-In-Prison ; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XUqXm9A4P9k
[107] https://www.newarab.com/tag/energy-minister-noureddine-boutarfa ; https://www.echoroukonline.com/snc-lavalin-scandals-noureddine-boutarfa-mohamed-meziane-20-accused-face-justice
[108] https://www.africanews.com/2022/11/15/algeria-former-sonatrach-ceo-sentenced-to-15-years-in-prison/
[109] https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230120-algeria-judiciary-20-years-imprisonment-in-absentia-against-former-energy-minister-chakib-khelil/ ; https://www.aps.dz/algerie/149899-des-peines-de-prison-ferme-requise-a-l-encontre-de-chakib-khelil-et-de-mohamed-bedjaoui ; https://observalgerie.com/2022/02/14/politique/proces-chakib-khelil-verdict/
[110] https://www.aps.dz/algerie/149899-des-peines-de-prison-ferme-requise-a-l-encontre-de-chakib-khelil-et-de-mohamed-bedjaoui
[111] Mohamed Bedjaoui maintains his innocence – Algerie360
[112] East-West motorway dossier: former MFA Mohamed Bedjaoui indicted – Algerie360 ; Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[113] SNC-Lavalin Reports Strong SNCL Services Results and Completes Major Milestone on LSTK Projects – SNC-Lavalin (snclavalin.com)
[114] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and China – Il Sole 24 ORE
[115] Mohamed Bedjaoui admet avoir “introduit” l’homme d’affaires Pierre Falcone auprès des autorités algériennes – Maghreb Emergent
[116] Dossier de l’autoroute Est-Ouest : L’ancien MAE Mohamed Bedjaoui inculpé – Algerie360
[117] Mohamed Bedjaoui admet avoir “introduit” l’homme d’affaires Pierre Falcone auprès des autorités algériennes – Maghreb Emergent
[118] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and – ‘The Algerian investigation shows that – Il Sole 24 ORE
[119] Trudeau goes on the attack after former justice minister Jody Wilson-Raybould’s shock resignation | National Post ; SNC-Lavalin: le DPCP pourrait aussi porter des accusations | La Presse
[120] Sask. NDP calls for review and moratorium on province’s deals with SNC-Lavalin | CBC News ; A brief history of SNC-Lavalin | CBC News
[121] Integrama Consultants Limited – Irish Company Info – Vision-Net
[122] INTEGRAMA CONSULTANTS LIMITED persons with significant control – Find and update company information – GOV.UK (company-information.service.gov.uk)
[123] Dollar trail between Algeria, Canada and – ‘The Algerian investigation shows that – Il Sole 24 ORE
[124] Mohamed Bedjaoui admet avoir “introduit” l’homme d’affaires Pierre Falcone auprès des autorités algériennes – Maghreb Emergent
[125] Dossier de l’autoroute Est-Ouest : L’ancien MAE Mohamed Bedjaoui inculpé – Algerie360
[126] Algeria: Chakib Khelil’s return buries corruption scandals | Middle East Eye French edition
[127] Tribunal de Sidi M’hamed: Chakib Khelil condamné à 20 ans de prison ferme (aps.dz) ; Le Verdict de l’affaire Sonatrach a été rendu hier : Ould Kaddour en prend pour 10 ans – El watan.dz (elwatan-dz.com)
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